By Laura J. Divine

How to select the right coach? This article presents a way of looking deeper into what coaching has the potential to offer. This is done by examining the underlying beliefs and assumptions of two distinct approaches to coaching as well as what the client is actually left with once the coaching is completed. The reader is provided a new set of distinctions from which to discern the appropriate type of coach for a given need

Content

• Characteristics Differentiating The Two Approaches
• A Deeper Look Into Each Approach
• Summary

Coaching is rapidly growing in it's applications. There are many different understandings and views about what coaching is, how it works, and what can be accomplished through the process of coaching. This paper is written for managers who find themselves in the position of having to choose a coach for themselves, or to decide on the type of coaching to use in their organization, and are not sure how to make that decision. It is intended to provide a way of making sense out of these divergent views about coaching by examining the prevailing approaches and what they each have to offer.

Coaching is about the identification and realization of possibilities. The questions then become, what possibilities and how are they realized? There is a link between how a coach works with a client, and what possibilities become available to the client. This then influences what competencies a client actually develops through the coaching process.

At present there are two primary modes of coaching. One is based on the view that change is a result of behavior modification. The other view is that change comes from reflective action. These two approaches represent fundamentally distinct and contrasting ways of coaching. What is "in-between" these two schools of thought are hybrids, or blends of the two. This paper will concentrate on the two distinct approaches in a way that provides a context and frame of reference for the reader to determine the underlying roots of any "in-between" method.

Numerous books and articles talk about such things as: how to coach, the benefits of coaching, case studies showing how coaching works, differentiating coaching from managing and therapy, etc. Most often, these writings talk about coaching without making explicit the underlying premises upon which it is being based. It is left to the reader to figure out the beliefs and assumptions from which that author speaks. This paper provides a way of looking at what two fundamentally different approaches to coaching offer through examining the following dimensions:

• The underlying assumptions about changing behavior
• The types of learning fostered
• Where the source of change is emanating from
• What the client is left with when the coaching is complete

Section I introduces a framework and a set of differentiating characteristics through which to examine each approach. Section II, then, uses this framework as a way to look more deeply into what defines and differentiates each approach. This is followed by a summary in Section III.

I. CHARACTERISTICS DIFFERENTIATING THE TWO APPROACHES

Change involves changes in behavior. The questions then become what needs to happen for a person to change what they do and how they do it? The two approaches can be compared on the basis of three assumptions about how behavior is changed:

1. Each approach's fundamental premise as to how change occurs.

   The fundamental premise is the underlying theories or models upon which the approach is based. It is from this foundation that the subsequent characteristics of the approach are formed.

2. The ways of influencing or intervening that are used.

   What is it that will enable the client to see and take action in a new, more constructive way? There are various ways of influencing or intervening with the client to accomplish this. These influences are either extrinsic or intrinsic in nature.

   The more extrinsic forms of influence are based on the idea that external stimuli can generate a desired response. This can involve techniques that use rewards and/or consequences as means of motivation. It can also involve various ways of informing a client that are based on the idea that, once a person knows what needs to change he will make those changes. Intrinsic forms of influence involve providing ways for the client to become aware of and take action towards a need or purpose that is important to them. In other words, what the client experiences in the form of conversation or in reflective action, serves as a catalyst for change that is generated more internally.

3. The elements of the context that are seen as relevant.

   Each approach has a view as to the scope and characteristics of the context that needs to be taken into consideration when working with a client. What is included as part of the context is based on what is considered relevant in bringing about change.

Learning is an essential component of change, and therefore another important dimension to examine in comparing these two approaches to coaching. There are different types of learning, which influence what is possible with regards to change. The model of single and double loop learning developed by C. Argyris and D. Schon describes this correlation between learning and change. Single loop learning is about learning within the context of existing assumptions and beliefs. The types of learnings available to the learner in single loop learning tend to reinforce and support the functioning of the existing system, and existing way of seeing things. Double loop learning involves learning in a way that changes the underlying values and assumptions. According to Argyris and Schon, changes in values, behavior, and leadership involve identifying, questioning and testing the assumptions underlying a person's current views.

Another dimension that distinguishes one coaching approach from another has to do with the source of change. This can be examined from two vantage points: one from the client's view, and the other from how the coach can influence that view.

1. Where the client attributes responsibility

   Individuals attribute responsibility for events either to factors within themselves and within their control or to factors outside their control. This attribution is called locus of control. Research has found that people with a more internal locus of control generally are more mature, self-reliant, and responsible. Additionally, they tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction. People with a more external orientation tend not to experience the psychological satisfaction that enables them to feel satisfied or successful in their work.

2. The ways a coach can influence the client's locus of control.

   How the coach relates to the client sets the tone for the nature of the relationship between the coach and the client. This then influences how and where the client looks to know how she is doing.

The final dimension has to do with the actual outcomes of the coaching process. In other words, what the client is left with once the coaching effort is complete. There are two aspects to this.

1. The products or outcomes of coaching

   The first is the tangible, specific set of products or outcomes of the coaching program. This is looking at what actually happened as expressed in behavioral terms and the outcomes of that behavior.

2. The competencies developed

   Another way of looking at the outcomes of a coaching effort is to look at the competencies the client has developed. Not only are there tangible results, but there are also changes in what the client is able to do and how that can influence her behavior over time.

Using this set of differentiating characteristics, the following table summarizes the profile of each approach.

Table 1. Summarized Profiles

		COACHING APPROACH
Dimension	Characteristic	BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION	REFLECTIVE ACTION
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HOW BEHAVIOR IS CHANGED	1) Premise	Change occurs by directly influencing behavior	Change occurs through working in the area of one's "structure of interpretation"
	2) Ways of Influencing / Intervening	Information / Feedback Emotions / Encouragement	Language that makes new distinctions Practice
	3) Context	Problem at hand Work scene Personal / Professional Goals	Purpose Values Commitments Community
LEARNING	Types of Learning	Instructional Problem Solving Single loop	Self-Observations in real time Inquiry into beliefs Double loop
SOURCE of CHANGE	1) Locus of Control	External	Internal
	2) Role of the Coach	Expert In Charge	Partner In Service
WHAT THE CLIENT IS LEFT WITH	1) Products / Outcomes	Improved Performance Problem Solved Some techniques for improving performance	Long Term Performance Excellence Self-Correcting Self-Generating
	2) Competencies	Behaving in certain ways to get desired results	Observing while in action Learning through inquiry and practice Changing more consciously and in alignment with purpose, values, and commitments

II. A DEEPER LOOK INTO EACH APPROACH

a) Behavior Modification

This approach to change is founded on the theory of behaviorism. The idea is that changes in behavior occur in response to some form of stimulus, or motivation. Motivation can come in two basic forms: motivation to move towards (positive, rewards) or to move away (punishment, pain) from something. Under this premise, coaching is about creating motivation to change in a particular way and providing a structure and/or process that keeps the client on track towards accomplishing certain goals. This premise, that the 'carrot and the stick' are the keys to change, shapes how the coaching process works, how the coach views the client and what the client accomplishes. The application of the theory of behaviorism is manifest in traditional management, methods of teaching, sports coaching and even in parenting. Its belief systems, summarized below, under key sentences, tend to be highly familiar to today's managers.

"Where There's A Will, There's A Way"

The key ingredient to bringing about change is motivation. If we want "it" bad enough, we will do what is necessary to get "it". This leads to the conclusion that at the core, it's a matter of will. "No will, no way". The coach's job, then is to find ways to generate motivation in the client. This involves getting the client to see how important or beneficial this change is to him, and/or what the consequences are if he doesn't change, such that he is compelled to take action.

Knowing = Results

The idea is to give the client multiple sources of information that show what she is doing wrong, as a way of informing the client about what and how she needs to change. Being founded in the theory of behaviorism, the purpose of this information is to serve as an intervention and motivation for change. The assumption is that by informing the client about what is going on and what needs to change, she will readily take the necessary actions to get the desired, improved results.

Focus On The Problem

Inherent in this approach is the view that there is a problem that needs to be addressed, and that in some fashion or form, something needs to be fixed. With a problem solving orientation, the context, is limited to that which is directly related to the problem at hand, where the solution lies and how to get the client to implement that solution in order to get the desired results.

Many Hats

With the reliance on the use of rewards and punishment as means of motivating the client to change behaviors, the sustainment of any changes requires continued stimulation by forces external to the client. The coach's role becomes one of a motivator, a director, an advisor, and a giver of feedback.

Some coaches have described their role as being to "find the right balance between the carrot and the stick". This way of working with a client forms a construct of the coach being in charge, and the client behaving accordingly. This role is established by the coach presenting herself as some kind of expert, who knows more about how to do whatever the client is struggling with. This is reinforced by the coach providing direction, pre-defined paths or recipes, and expecting the client to fit into and follow them. While this can all be very useful in helping the client to achieve certain results, it fortifies the client's placement of attention on external sources to know what to do or know how she is doing.

Learning How To Do Things Right

The coach focuses heavily on what the client needs to do differently to achieve higher levels of performance. The emphasis is on getting the client to change what he is doing in a way that complies or conforms to some set of desired behaviors. The type of learning, therefore, is more single loop than double loop, as the orientation is around learning what is the right way to do something according to those in position of authority.

Coaching conversations then, tend to be more instructional and/or to engage in questioning as it pertains to functioning successfully within the system, by providing information, advice, direction, etc.. Questioning tends to be focused on such things as the issues at hand, generating solutions, building action plans, etc.. This type of questioning is most often within the scope of one's existing constructs of beliefs and assumptions.

See the Need, Build the Action Plan, Get the Results

This is the trademark of this approach to coaching. Using the motivation methods described above generates an awareness of the need for change. Building the plan of action provides the path for change that the client commits to doing. Once the plan is built, it is up to the client to get the results. Motivated by the goals, or consequences, as well as the proclaimed commitment to take these actions, the client is expected to carry out the plans. As a form of support and source of renewed motivation, the coach periodically meets with the client to see how things are progressing and helps the client get back on track when necessary. A coaching process like this does get results. What the client is left with is knowing how to get those desired results.

The behavior modification approach focuses heavily on what the client needs to do to get the results he wants to be successful in a given system that is not to be questioned. From there, it is about getting the client to do what needs to be done to get those results. Generating motivation through convincing data, seeing the consequences of not changing and/or getting in touch with the benefits of making changes are the ways in which clients are influenced to change. Additionally, the focus is only on those things that have an obvious relationship to achieving the desired goals. Learning tends to be in ways that reinforce whatever system the client operates in. Thus, the client will indeed perform better in that particular setting. Finally, the client has the satisfaction of reaching the goals of the coaching program and is left knowing how to do what she has learned to do.

b) Reflective Action

This coaching approach is rooted in philosophies and theories having to do with how we interpret and make meaning of our experiences, how those interpretations can change, and what fundamental change entails. The premise is that a person's behavior follows from his 'structure of interpretation'. This means that the way one sees the world at a particular moment determines the actions he takes. Each person's 'structure of interpretation' is unique to them, and is shaped by his personal experiences, beliefs and intentions. Since we are usually unaware of how our 'structure of interpretation' is influencing our behavior, the role of a coach is to find ways of making the client's own 'structure of interpretation' explicit and accessible to himself. By doing so, the client is able to observe something in ways that he was not able to observe before, and new possibilities for action become available. It is from this process that behaviors then change, and desired outcomes are reached.

Mutual Respect, Trust and Freedom of Expression

Effective coaching is predicated upon a relationship between the coach and client that is based on mutual respect, trust and freedom of expression. 'Mutual' describes the equality in how the coach and client see one another. 'Respect' means that there is a genuine regard for the other person's integrity. 'Trust' means that there is a confidence in the other person's capabilities and that there will be a sincere effort towards reaching the coaching objectives. 'Freedom of expression' means that what needs to get said to the other person gets said. While these qualities tend to develop and grow through the life of the coaching relationship they must be present from the onset for this type of coaching to be successful.

Always - Already

People are always, already in the midst of their life. What a person is committed to, what kinds of projects she is engaged in, what immediate concerns she has, the relationships that she is a part of, and the environment that she lives in are expressions of that life. These realms both shape and express a person's 'structure of interpretation'. Therefore, in order to understand the client and know how to best work with the client, the coach must include these realms of a person's life in ways that are relevant to the coaching effort.

New Language, New Meaning

In this approach, language is seen as the way in which people make meaning out of their experiences. It is also the way new distinctions, and thereby new meanings are generated. For example, when a person learns a new language, such as Chinese, and actually practices it, new observations, new actions and a new view emerge. However, the introduction of this new language must be done in a way that the student can relate to and connect what is already known with what is new.

Thus, language is an important part of coaching in a number of ways. How a client speaks, what is said and not said, all give the coach insight into his 'structure of interpretation'. This then guides the coach in discerning how to speak with the client in a way that makes sense to the client. Additionally, the coach must find ways of using language that enable the client to make new distinctions in ways that support his progress. The use of metaphors, questions, and self-observation exercises are examples of ways to generate such distinctions.

New Sight, New Possibilities, New Actions

The ways in which the coach works with a client is through conversations, observations and practices. These provide ways for the client to have a greater awareness of, and have new insights into, how she behaves as well as the outcomes of her behavior in specific situations. It is through this personal examination into what is actually happening in real time and seeing how this behavior is in response to her point of view that the client experiences a more realistic understanding of herself and the surrounding situation. This process of reflection and inquiry amidst action enables the client to get behind the scene of her own actions and vividly see what is not normally seen, how it is seen, and what behaviors follow. Then, by practicing new actions that support new possibilities the client becomes competent in living from a new, more constructive and satisfying vantage point. This way of working with a client evokes an internally generated openness for change, which is demonstrated through a more vivid awareness as to what is actually going on. It also cultivates a sense of responsibility and accountability for the client's own actions. The coach's role in the context of this approach is to discern what competencies need to be developed and how to best develop them such that the client is able to take more constructive actions in support of her goals.

Learning As Doing

The process of learning and change occurs through the client taking action. The coach's job is to construct exercises and practices that enable conscious change in ways that support the client's objectives. The client's job is to engage in these exercises as fully and as completely as possible. Additionally, there are conversations held throughout the coaching process which are focused on what the client is learning as he engages in specific exercises or practices developed by the coach. During these conversations, the coach also looks for ways to keep developing the client's awareness of the linkages between actions and outcomes, and what he is accomplishing relative to the program objectives. By completing the learning loop through looking at tangible outcomes and results, the client develops a more intrinsic understanding of how he is doing.

This approach to coaching not only enables the client to achieve excellence in her performance, it also enables her to be self-correcting and self-generating. Self-correcting means that the client is able to self-observe, knows when her performance is off and makes the necessary adjustments to get back on track. Self-generating involves being able to take the competencies developed in this coaching program, of self-observation, self-assessment and self-correction and apply them to other realms of her life on an on-going basis.

The reflective action approach to coaching supports the development of people to be self-directed learners, who are more capable of identifying areas where they need to change and how to bring about those changes. It also embodies an underlying belief that change involves the whole person. Additionally, an insight based approach to performance development leaves people with a greater capacity to function in fast changing, unstructured, unpredictable environments, as they are more skilled and comfortable with change and what it takes to bring about change. Finally, when the approach to change is intrinsically cultivated, the client more fully experiences a personal sense of satisfaction and fulfillment.

III. SUMMARY

Different needs require different approaches. What is important is knowing what is needed and how to identify the right kind of coaching to meet those needs. Hopefully, this paper has provided the reader with a new way of thinking about coaching, what is possible and how to make useful distinctions in what different coaches offer.

As a way of summing up this comparison of coaching approaches, here is a collection of quotes from a variety of coaches. What sounds fitting for you? Can you get a sense of what you would experience with each of these coaches?

The Behavior Modification Approach	The Reflective Action Approach
"During the course of a process....the executive and the coach work together to identify and modify the behaviors that have been hampering the executive's effectiveness."	"Coaching gives a new framework for viewing familiar issues, people and events, enabling one to respond naturally and effectively even in the toughest situations."
"Coaching requires understanding someone's problem behavior in context, deciding whether the problem can be remedied, and encouraging the person to adapt."	"As coaches, we are concerned with impacting or altering 'what's happening' so that there is a different outcome (for the client)."
"The coach may act as motivator, cheerleader and general enthusiast.....(and at other times) rely more heavily on questioning and listening techniques."	"It involves impacting people's visions and values as well as helping them reshape their way of being, thinking and actions... (and) expanding people's capacity to take effective action."

At the end of the day, both these approaches get results. What distinguishes one from another is how those results were generated and what the client is able to take forward and continue applying in his life. This differentiation has broader consequences than just the coaching effort itself. It influences how a person sees himself, sees the people around him, sees his role in an organization and sees the outcomes of whatever he does. Moving from an individual to a collective level, this can impact the character and qualities of a given organization.

Thus, the question of which coaching approach to use is linked to the larger question of what kind of people do organizations need to be successful through time? Organizations are finding that the dramatically changing work environment is forcing questions as to what kinds of qualities, skills and competencies are required by leaders, employees and organizations to be successful going forward. Flexibility, resilience, creativity, active learning, collaboration, self improvement and responsiveness are examples of the kinds of qualities that are needed.

Having experienced both approaches, it is the author's view, that the "reflective action" approach to coaching better supports the generation of these increasingly needed competencies. James Flaherty, the founder of New Ventures West, offers a succinct analysis of the two models presented in this paper which aptly serves as a conclusion:

"....what's possible in coaching inevitably follows the models upon which the intervention is based. A model that only includes informing the intellect or motivating the will can almost never leave the client competent to continuously improve her level of skill while simultaneously enhancing her experience of fulfillment."

LAURA J. DIVINE is a management consultant specializing in professional coaching that evokes excellence in long-term performance. Her expertise in this field comes from fifteen years of leadership experience in the telecommunications industry and ten years of studying and practicing as a coach. Laura is a certified professional coach and a member of the New Ventures West Professional Coaches Association. She also has an MA from the University of California, Berkeley and has studied at the Harvard Graduate School of Business.